Hurricane Research Division at NOAA’s- Atlantic Oceanographic Meteorological Laboratory Map Links
Gloria Aversano, Librarian at NOAA Miami Regional Library at National Hurricane/Tropical Prediction Center has posted this document on the ASLI list_serv on various web links that the Hurricane Research Division at NOAA’s – Atlantic Oceanographic Meteorological Laboratory refer to during map discussions. It contains models, data and analysis of SST and easterly wave genesis links.
- Posted by: AtmosPeer ProQuest on Jan 27, 2010
- Document Type: Other
- Document Category: Other
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NOAA Hurricane Preparation Materials
This is a list of materials produced by NOAA with hurricane preparation information.
- Posted by: Gloria Aversano on Jan 25, 2010
- Document Type: Web link
- Document Category: Other
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DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD HURRICANE EVACUATION CHOICE IN FLORDIA
In this study we implement a set of econometric models to analyze the determinants of household hurricane evacuation choice for a sample of 1,355 households in Florida. This article contributes to the literature by accounting for two issues normally neglected in previous studies; namely, time and space. The empirical results suggest that households living in risky environments (mobile home and flooding areas) are more likely to evacuate. In addition, households with kids and those who have experience the treat of a hurricane also display higher probabilities to evacuate. Conversely, homeowners and households with pets are less likely to evacuate than their counterparts. Regional differences in propensity to evacuate are also clearly demonstrated, with households in southeast Florida less likely to evacuate than those in northwest Florida.
- Posted by: Daniel Solis on Feb 10, 2010
- Document Type: Conference paper
- Document Category: Other
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Optimal Crop Insurance under Climate Variability: Contrasting Insurer and Farmer Interests
This study illustrates the potential synergies and conflicts of interest between farmers and insurers in the selection of an optimal crop insurance contract. Special attention is given to how climate information influences this decision‐making process. To do so, we consider a representative 40 ha, rainfed, cotton‐peanut farm located in Jackson County, Florida. Our
results show that year‐to‐year El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) based climate variability affects farmers’ and insurers’ net returns according to crop insurance contracts. Introduction of ENSO‐based climate forecasts presents a significant impact on the selection of a particular contract to both the farmer and the insurer. We conclude that insurers and farmers can bridge their divergent interests by improving their understanding of the effect of climate conditions on the development of sustainable business plans.
- Posted by: Daniel Solis on Feb 02, 2010
- Document Type: Journal article
- Document Category: Other
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MANAGING CLIMATE VARIABILITY IN AGRICULTURAL ANALYSIS
This chapter offers some analytical insights for a comprehensive theoretical understanding of how to develop reliable ENSO-based crop yield forecasts and how to incorporate this information into an ENSO-sensitive farm-plan. A discussion on the usefulness of climate information for policy analysis is also presented. An improved basic understanding on the impact of seasonal climate variability (i.e., ENSO) on agriculture involves a more in-depth discussion of the value of the information as well as a broader knowledge of actual (or created) distinctions between adaptation, mitigation and response to climate risks. This chapter intends to inform the scientific community of the state-of-art on studies related to climate risk in agriculture and to help identify priorities for ongoing and future research.
- Posted by: Daniel Solis on Feb 02, 2010
- Document Type: Book chapter
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
2005-2006 Oklahoma & Texas grass fires: 25 lives lost, lessons learned
Bob Mutch, Fire Management Applications, Missoula, MT -
Not available.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
2008 forest fires in the northern California, USA
Hiroshi Hayasaka, Hokkaido Univ., Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan; and C. N. Skinner -
Worst forest fires for northern California occurred in June 2008. Unprecedented dry storm attacked and tremendous number of lightning ignited more than 800 forest and wildland fires. This preliminary report describes weather condition of dry storm day based on analysis results of weather data including lightning, an image from NASA satellite “Tera”, and hotspot information from NASA system. Field research was also carried out to explain reason for active forest fires after ignition. Discussion on “historical” dry storm was made using weather maps for ground and high altitude (500hPa), vertical air temperature profile by considering a weather report issued from NOAA.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
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A comparison of hourly fine fuel moisture code calculations within Canada
Kerry R. Anderson, Canadian Forest Service, Edmonton, AB, Canada -
This paper compares approaches to calculating hourly values of the fine fuel moisture code (FFMC) used in Canada. The equations used in the daily FFMC calculations within the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index (FWI) System are explained and compared to those used in the hourly calculations developed by Van Wagner (1977). An alternate approach using just the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is introduced. A third approach developed by Lawson et al. (1996) provides diurnal adjustments for the FFMC based strictly on the standard noon FFMC and expected diurnal variation. Hourly FFMC and EMC values are tested to see if either routine approaches observed variations as interpreted from Lawson et al. Finally, results from fire-growth simulations are used to assess the impact of the methods.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
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A Forecast Procedure for Dry Lightning Busts
Nick Nauslar, DRI, Reno, NV; and T. J. Brown and J. Wallman -
“Dry” thunderstorm (traditionally less than 2.5 mm or 0.1” of rainfall) forecasting has long been a forecast problem for the western United States. These dry thunderstorms are responsible for starting thousands of wildland fires every year. In the largest lightning outbreaks (or “busts” in the wildland fire community), hundreds of fires may be started in a 24 to 36 hour period. These extreme events put a huge strain on fire suppression efforts. Many of these fires may go unstaffed due to the lack of available fire personnel simply because of the large number of fire starts. Forecasting these events in advance, even just 24-48 hours, could help fire agencies plan resources in preparation of a large outbreak. Fires are much more likely to be controlled during the early stages, and therefore cost much less to fight.
Due to the seemingly innocuous conditions preceding dry thunderstorm development across the Great Basin, forecasting dry thunderstorm events can prove challenging and inconsistent. Jim Wallmann, an IMET at WFO Reno, recently developed WA04, a conceptual model of Great Basin dry thunderstorms that includes the pressure of the dynamic tropopause , jet streak dynamics, equivalent potential temperature, and upper level lapse rates in conjunction with the High Level Total Totals. Isentropic and satellite data analysis will be added to WA04 in the future.
This procedure was applied to several case studies of dry lightning busts including the dry lightning event in northern California on June 20-21, 2008 and the Nevada dry lightning event of August 12, 2001. It proved useful in determining the potential for dry thunderstorm development in the preceding days and hours to the initiation of the event. This presentation summarizes these case studies, and describes the WA04 procedure.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
A grass moisture model for the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System
B. M. Wotton, Canadian Forest Service, Sault St. Marie, ON, Canada -
The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS) is used throughout Canada, and in a number of countries throughout the world, for estimating fire potential in wildland fuels. Estimates of fire danger generated from the system rely upon estimates of fuel moisture in three distinct moisture models from the Fire Weather Index (FWI) System. These standard fuel moisture models are representative of moisture in closed canopy jack pine or lodge pole pine stands. The applicability of these models to grasslands therefore has been questioned by some users of the system due to the exposure of grassland fuels and the very rapid fuel moisture time lags that have been observed in this type. Given that the CFFDRS is being adopted in, or adapted to, an increasing number of countries, a new faster reacting moisture code, associated with grassland, was developed to provide the system with representative moisture estimates over a wider range of fuel types. This new Grass Fuel Moisture Code (GFMC) retains the structure of the Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC) in the FWI System, uses the same input weather observations, but also requires an estimate of solar radiation incident on the fuel. The model allows diurnal calculation of moisture, an important attribute given the fast reacting exposed fuels in grasslands. The development and structure of this new model is described and outputs of this new model, along with outputs from the existing FFMC model, are compared with field observations. Results show that the model tracks the diurnal variation in grassland moisture content more accurately than the existing model for diurnal calculation of the FFMC in the FWI System. Examples of the use of output from this new GFMC within the structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System are also presented along with procedures for calculating the GFMC when direct solar radiation measurements are not available.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
J. D. Carlson, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK -
On April 9, 2009 all the meteorological ingredients came together across western and central Oklahoma to create a “perfect storm” for severe wildfire outbreaks. On that day at least 14 wildfires were reported, burning a total of 117,000 acres and injuring 62 people. Some of these fires continued to burn into the next day. Portions of major state highways and interstates were shut down for periods of time. Of the 269 structures damaged by these wildfires, 228 were destroyed, including over 160 homes (70 of these were in the Oklahoma City area alone). The largest fire was reported in Stephens County in south central Oklahoma; it consumed 56,688 acres and at that point in time was the largest single wildfire across the United States reported to the National Interagency Fire Center since the start of 2009. Losses from all the fires are estimated at over $30 million.
As measured by the Oklahoma Mesonet, the state’s 120-station automated weather station network, 10-m winds during the afternoon of April 9 across western and central Oklahoma were in most areas sustained at 30-40 mph with gusts as high as 74 mph reported. A strong low pressure system (sea-level pressure of 29.24 inches) was situated across northern Oklahoma. A strong dry line developed by early afternoon and was situated in a north-south orientation along Interstate 35 (which divides eastern Oklahoma from western). Behind (to the west of) this dry line, strong west to southwesterly winds were advecting hot and dry air into the region from Texas. In addition, a slow-moving cold front was entering northwest Oklahoma, resulting in a wedge-shaped area of hot, windy, dry air between the dry line and cold front. It was in this area that the wildfires occurred. Temperatures in this region approached 90F in a number of locations, and relative humidity fell as low as 6%.
The Oklahoma Fire Danger Model, which is an implementation of the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) to the Oklahoma Mesonet, indicated extremely high fire danger conditions in this wedge area. Based on the default NFDRS fuel models that are assigned to each Mesonet location, burning index (BI) values over 80 were commonplace, with values rising as high as 165 in southwest Oklahoma. Ignition component (IC) values over 50% were prevalent, with values rising as high as 84% in south central Oklahoma. The Nelson dead fuel moisture model, which is run operationally, indicated 1-hour dead fuel moisture as low as 2% in south central Oklahoma, with values under 5% widespread in the wedge area.
This presentation will provide a mesoscale analysis of the weather and fire danger conditions of April 9, 2009, which led to the widespread severe wildfire outbreaks in Oklahoma that afternoon. Using the Oklahoma Mesonet and the Oklahoma Fire Danger Model, animated maps and site-specific charts will be presented detailing the extreme fire danger conditions, the most severe of which occurred in the areas reporting the worst wildfires.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
A mountain wind model for assisting fire management
Gary L. Achtemeier, USDA Forest Service, Athens, GA -
Forestry organizations responsible for managing prescribed fire or controlling wildfire rely on weather forecasts of wind speed and wind direction for planning and allocation of resources. At the locations of fire sites in mountainous areas, winds are highly variable and may differ from winds at distant weather stations or from winds collected at safe sites just a few kilometers from fire lines. These uncertainties in winds can upset plans and place fire fighters in jeopardy.
A recursive rule-driven “mountain wind model” (MWM) replaces terrain with a “pressure potential” equation to simulate wind fields in complex terrain. Wind fields are developed for a 100m deep layer draped over terrain. The MWM is demonstrated with flow around a simple obstacle (Stone Mountain, GA), flow over western canyon lands, flow over a ridgeline in the central Appalachians, and for the Esperanza fire in California on 26 October 2006.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
Are some RAWS observations more critical to an analysis than others?
John D. Horel, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT; and X. Dong -
The impact of the present distribution of Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) observations was assessed objectively in order to demonstrate both the value of the existing network as well as identify potential redundancies. Control analyses valid at 1800 UTC for selected days from May to November 2008 were created using background fields from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction and all available RAWS and National Weather Surface (NWS) surface observations between 1730-1830 UTC. Then, sets of additional analyses for each time were generated using all RAWS and NWS observations except each observation is withheld once. A two-dimensional variational analysis technique was optimized in order to be able to generate thousands of such data denial experiments for 51 subdomains covering the continental United States for analyses of surface temperature, wind and relative humidity. Objective measures are used to evaluate the extent to which the analyses are degraded by the removal of some observations relative to others.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
Assessing topography and wind alignment for firefighter safety
William M. Jolly, US Forest Service, Missoula, MT; and J. Forthofer and B. W. Butler -
Topography and winds are well-known contributors to wildland fire behavior. Taken individually, these factors are both important contributors to fire spread but when winds align with topography and blow directly uphill, fires can spread rapidly. These situations pose significant safety concerns for firefighters that might be caught on a slope with unburned fuel between themselves and an active wildfire. Here we demonstrate the applicability of a computational fluid dynamics model to map terrain-driven wind patterns and we show how these wind maps, combined with topographic information, can be used to classify areas where topography and winds align. We present a simple trigonometric model that can be used to characterize this relationship and map these areas of alignment and we use this method to illustrate the relationship between topography and wind in the 1994 South Canyon fire. This simple method can map topography and wind alignment a priori to improve firefighter situational awareness and safety.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
Changes in Fire Season Precipitation in Idaho and Montana from 1982-2006
Ann M. Hadlow, University of Montana, Missoula, MT; and C. A. Seielstad -
Fire season precipitation trends were investigated using daily rainfall data obtained from 76 Remote Automated Weather Stations (RAWS) across Idaho and Montana for the period 1982 to 2006. Station records were made temporally consistent/comparable by replacing missing/erroneous observations with data from the North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) using methods easily reproducible by fire managers. Monthly precipitation was then analyzed during the core fire season(July-Sept) and biweekly precipitation was analyzed for the start of fire season (June). The end of the season was examined using October precipitation data and through identification of season slowing rain events (SSE). These analyses reveal significant changes in precipitation amount, timing and spatial autocorrelation between stations. While June precipitation has generally increased, core fire season is getting drier and longer. Season slowing events are occurring 15 days later, on average, than they did in 1982, while summer rainfall is decreasing at 97% of stations with clusters of significant change focused in the central Idaho mountains and in west-central Montana. The observed trends in precipitation paired with later season slowing events could result in more active fire seasons in the Northern Rockies and may help explain some of the changes in fire season that have been previously attributed to earlier spring snowmelt and warmer temperatures.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
Climate and fire for fuels management -- Episode 1: The invisible climate signal
Timothy J. Brown, DRI, Reno, Nevada; and N. Nauslar -
Every year, thousands of prescribed and other appropriate managed fires are conducted across the country. These fires are begun and maintained under predefined weather and fuel prescriptions such as temperature, relative humidity and wind speed ranges. These values are determined to allow for controlled fire that will meet a specific management objective. With some exception for long duration events, climate information is not considered for managed burns. For example, climate is not an explicit prescription parameter for prescribed burns. However, there is clearly an underlying climate signal associated with the day-to-day weather leading up to and during the burn events. The value of knowing climate thresholds (a quantitative value of a climate index) in relation to managed fire business is: 1) provide information to reduce the risk of perimeter escape; 2) quantify a specific climate index that has the potential to be seasonally predicted for strategic fuels management planning. In this study, managed fires in the U.S. for 1980-2008 were examined in association with a number of climate indices to determine climate thresholds under which the managed fire took place. For example, results show that 70% of all managed fires in the U.S. occurred when the standardized precipitation index was neutral to wet. This presentation will provide a discussion of the need for quantitative climate information in fuels management, and provide some results of climate index thresholds in association with managed fires.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
Climate change impacts on burn severity in Alaska Part II: Implications for fire management
Crystal A. Kolden, DRI, Reno, NV; and J. T. Abatzoglou -
Conventional wisdom and findings from the conterminous U.S. dictate that warmer, drier conditions enable larger, more severe wildfires. In interior Alaska, however, these climatic conditions appear to be linked to a shift in the fire regime wherein a greater fraction of fires burn at lower severity. Understanding the ecological implications for this apparent shift is critical to fire managers, who have limited resources to manage a vast region largely unaltered in the historic period, but are rapidly seeing the effects of climate change. This study identifies trends in area burned and burned severity as they relate to fuels, and addresses the climate change impacts on fire regimes and fire management over the next century. Global climate model outputs project significant increases in summer temperature over the next century. This has significant implications for fire and fuels management in Alaska for two primary reasons. First, wetlands which historically did not burn are widely used for fire breaks in suppression efforts in Alaska, and are more likely to burn under warmer conditions. Second, the increased burning of wetlands and marginally flammable areas (i.e. deciduous forest stands) is likely to produce increased smoke problems for Fairbanks and the many rural villages that lie along Alaska’s river systems.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
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Climate change impacts on burn severity in Alaska, Part I: Climate-fire relationships
John T. Abatzoglou, DRI, Reno, NV; and C. A. Kolden -
Unprecedented fire seasons in 2004 and 2005 in interior Alaska raised concerns about the ramifications of climate change for fire regimes in boreal ecosystems. Previous work addressing wildfire-climate relationships in the region has relied on historic area burned and fire occurrence data, both of which have significant known limitations. Burn severity is a better indicator of a fire’s immediate and long-term ecological impacts, and captures the spatial variability of these impacts across the landscape. A 23-year burn severity atlas is utilized to test long-held hypotheses that warmer summers are conducive to larger and more severe wildfires in Alaska. Further analyses examine the interrelationship between higher-frequency meteorological parameters and fire size and fire severity. Results confirm that while warmer summer temperatures and extended periods of anomalously warm and dry weather are linked to larger fires, such conditions do not appear to be linked to an increase in the fraction of area burned at higher severity. Although contradictory to conventional wisdom, results show that warmer conditions and extended periods of limited precipitation enable flammability limited fuels to burn, albeit at lower severity, providing greater horizontal fuel continuity that allow for larger wildfires.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
Warren E. Heilman, USDA Forest Service, East Lansing, MI; and X. Bian -
Recent studies have examined the feasibility of using near-surface turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) alone or in combination with the well-known Haines Index (HI) as an indicator of the atmospheric potential for extreme and erratic fire behavior. High resolution atmospheric mesoscale model simulations of fire-weather evolution during past wildland fire episodes in the north central and northeastern U.S. suggest that periods of rapid fire growth are often accompanied by periods of significant near-surface turbulence. The simulations also indicate that the duration of episodes of high near-surface TKE during large wildfire events in this region is highly variable. While these findings have provided new insight into ambient turbulence variability during wildfires, little is known about the spatial and temporal climatological patterns of atmospheric TKE in different regions of the U.S. The recent release of the North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) dataset, an atmospheric and land surface hydrology dataset at 32 km resolution that covers the 1979-present period and includes TKE and temperature and dew point temperature data for computing the HI, provides an excellent opportunity for examining the spatial and temporal climatological patterns of TKE and HI x TKE values over different regions of North America. For this study, NARR-based monthly mean near-surface and upper-air TKE values and computed HI values at 3-hourly intervals were examined to identify the preferred locations, seasons, and time periods for large TKE and large HI x TKE values in the U.S.
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
Jorge Humberto Amorim, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; and C. Borrego and A. I. Miranda -
The aerial drop of firefighting products, whether chemical retardants or just plain water, play an important role in the overall efficiency of operations and resources in terrain within a wide range of situations, especially in emerging fires, inaccessible mountainous areas, or in sensible areas or situations requiring a rapid intervention. However, since on-board systems for computer-assisted drops have not yet been used operationally, the efficiency of aerial means is extremely dependent on pilot skills in dealing with reduced visibility and erratic atmospheric conditions. In this context, the development of numerical modelling tools can be of primary importance towards the optimisation of firefighting operations.
The main objective of the current investigation was the development and validation of the operational Aerial Dropping Model – ADM. This numerical tool allows a near real time simulation of the aerial dropping of firefighting products for a wide range of viscosities (from unthickened products to highly thickened long-term retardants), while covering the most important stages of the process.
For the particulate phase, the volume of product released per time is calculated for the three types of aerial delivery systems available in the market: conventional, constant flow, and pressurized (MAFFS). After the outflow of the liquid from the aircraft tank, ADM calculates the jet column bending and fracture that is related to the continuous stripping of droplets from the exposed surface of the jet by Rayleigh-Taylor and Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities. The sizes of the child droplets resulting from this primary breakup stage are computed through the jet stability theory (in a similarity with fuel spray modelling for the automotive industry), according to which the droplets sizes are related to the wavelengths of the most unstable waves. Droplets are then subjected to secondary breakup by bag or shear breakup regimes that are identified by the model through the dimensionless numbers Weber and Ohnesorge. The spatiotemporal evolution of secondary breakup is calculated from experimental correlations. Droplets trajectories during breakup are described by a Lagrangian dispersion scheme. The effect of deformation on the motion of the free-falling firefighting droplets is introduced through a dynamical drag model that accounts for the effect of non-sphericity on drag. Prior to reaching the ground, a canopy interception module applies the concept of film thickness (from rainfall interception studies) in order to allow an approximate estimate of the fraction of volume retained by vegetation.
For the simulation of the gas-phase the vegetative canopy model coupled to a modified surface-layer model is used. This approach allows considering the effects on the wind field of the atmospheric stability and the presence of trees, which are characterised by their Leaf Area Index (LAI). For simplicity, the code does not include the effect of thermally induced air motions on the product’s behaviour. Therefore, it is specially indicated for ‘indirect attacks’, in which the drop is made at some distance from the fire front.
ADM performance was investigated against measured data of product ground concentration obtained during 18 drops conducted in Marseille (France) and Marana (US) with an S2 Tracker aircraft. These measurements of product concentration at ground followed the “cup-and-grid” method, according to which a grid of cups is used and the weight of product in each one is registered after total deposition. The delivery system type, flight parameters, meteorological conditions and product characteristics were varied in order to evaluate the model performance within a wide range of input conditions. The validation procedure consisted on the intercomparison of the ground patterns shape, plus a statistical analysis of computed data in comparison to measurements, in terms of the length and area of each isoconcentration contour (i.e., coverage level).
In general, ADM allowed a good representation of the spatial distribution of product for the different coverage levels. The statistical validation of the results showed that the model accuracy is actually within the statistical uncertainty of the cup-and-grid sampling method. Line lengths per coverage level are within a 10% error in general, with an average normalised mean squared error (NMSE) of 0.01 and a Pearson correlation coefficient above 0.9 in both Marseille and Marana drop trials. The accuracy of the simulated areas per level decreases to an average NMSE of 0.02 and 0.04, for the two drop trials respectively, although the good correlation remains. In all cases, nearly 90% of the results were within a factor of two of observations. Also, the geometric mean was between 1.1 (for area) and 1.2 (for line length), indicating that the mean bias is clearly within the ±30% variation from the mean established by the model acceptance criteria. In all situations, all the statistical metrics fulfilled the requirements of the referred criteria. The accuracy of the simulations shows no strong relation with the corresponding viscosity, although better results are obtained in the range from 700 to 1100 cP.
ADM provides a new insight on the importance of aerodynamic breakup mechanisms on the generation and behaviour of droplets of firefighting liquid, while maintaining the run-time on a feasible level given the limits imposed by the intended operational application. Due to its characteristics and performance, ADM can potentially be used in formation, training and demonstration activities with pilots, aerial resource coordinators, civil protection personnel or general firefighters, or in the testing of the effectiveness of firefighting chemicals, complementing the data obtained from real scale drop tests and laboratorial experiments. The user control over the input parameters allows the effect on ground pattern to be assessed for a wide range of dropping scenarios, avoiding the natural variability and irreproducibility of field conditions, and a better understanding of the multiple interrelated phenomena involved.
Submitted to oral presentation in the following topic: “Model Studies and Development”
- Document Type: Conference presentation
- Document Category: Other
- Discussion: 0 comments
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